Environmental factors significantly influence women's health, with a particularly profound impact on menstrual health. The interplay between the environment and menstrual health is multifaceted, involving physical, chemical, biological, and social dimensions. Understanding how these factors affect menstrual health is crucial for promoting well-being and mitigating health risks for women. This article explores the various ways the environment impacts menstrual health, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions and comprehensive strategies to support women's health.
Chemical Environmental Factors
- Pesticides and Herbicides
Exposure to pesticides and herbicides can significantly impact menstrual health. These chemicals, commonly used in agriculture, can disrupt endocrine function, leading to menstrual irregularities, painful periods (dysmenorrhea), and reproductive health issues. Women working in or living near agricultural areas are at higher risk of exposure, highlighting the need for safer agricultural practices and protective measures. A marked reduction in fertility and an increase in adverse reproductive outcomes during the last few decades have been associated with occupational and environmental chemical exposures. Exposure to different types of pesticides may increase the risks of chronic diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, and neurodegenerative disease, but also of reduced fertility and birth defects.
- Heavy Metals
Increasing urbanization and industrialization can lead to the elevated risk of human exposure to heavy metals, and consequently, health implications including disturbances in reproduction. It is therefore important to continue the investigations on metal-induced mechanisms of fertility impairment on the genetic, epigenetic and biochemical level. Simultaneously, parallel epidemiological data are necessary to assess the real risk of exposure for each population, and the participation of heavy metals in unexplained fertility problems. Analytical data on the accumulation of metals in gynecological organs and tissues can also provide interesting information, particularly if correlated with the quality of the environment, lifestyle and diet.
Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium pose serious health risks and can adversely affect menstrual health. Chronic exposure to these metals, whether through occupation, contaminated water, or consumer products, can lead to menstrual irregularities, reproductive toxicity, and increased risk of gynecological disorders. Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable, as these metals can cross the placenta and harm fetal development, potentially leading to long-term health issues for both the mother and child. (Rzymski, P. et al., 2015)
- Endocrine Disruptors
An endocrine-disrupting compound has been defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as ‘an agent that interferes with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, or elimination of natural hormones in the body that are responsible for the maintenance of homeostasis, reproduction, development and/or behavior. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), found in plastics, cosmetics, and industrial products, can interfere with hormone function and impact menstrual health. Exposure to EDCs such as phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), and certain flame retardants can result in irregular menstrual cycles, early onset of menopause, and increased risk of hormone-related cancers. Reducing exposure to these chemicals through regulatory measures and consumer awareness is crucial for protecting menstrual health. (Kabir, E. R. et al., 2015)
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Biological Environmental Factors
- Infectious Diseases
The environment plays a crucial role in the transmission of infectious diseases, which can affect menstrual health. Vector-borne diseases like malaria and Zika virus can lead to severe complications during pregnancy, including congenital abnormalities and stillbirths. Additionally, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as chlamydia and gonorrhea can cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), leading to menstrual irregularities and chronic pelvic pain. Untreated PID can have serious long-term complications for young women. Indications for hospitalization for PID include the presence of a tubo-ovarian abscess, severe illness with systemic symptoms, pregnancy, human immunodeficiency virus infection, and failure to respond to outpatient oral treatment (within 48–72 hours) or inability to tolerate the oral treatment. (Lemly, D., & Gupta, N. 2020), (Das, B. B., Ronda, J., & Trent, M. 2016)
- Microbiome Disruptions
Environmental factors, including diet, antibiotic use, and pollutants, can affect the vaginal microbiome, which is essential for menstrual health. The vaginal microbiome is a complex and dynamic microecosystem that fluctuates continually throughout a woman's life. Lactobacillus, a bacterium that possesses antibacterial properties dominates a healthy vaginal microbiome. Bacterial vaginosis is the most common vaginal disorder that has been linked with the dysbiosis of normal vaginal microbiota. Despite the importance of vaginal microbiome, little is known about functions it performs especially, how it helps in protecting the female reproductive tract. A healthy vaginal microbiome protects against infections and maintains a balanced pH, crucial for menstrual health. Disruptions to the microbiome can lead to conditions like bacterial vaginosis, yeast infections, and other menstrual health issues. Maintaining a healthy microbiome through proper hygiene, balanced diet, and avoiding unnecessary antibiotics is vital for menstrual health. (Deka, N. et al., 2021), (Gupta, S., Kakkar, V., & Bhushan, I. 2019)
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Physical Environmental Factors
- Air Quality
Air pollution is a major environmental health hazard that disproportionately affects women. Women, particularly those in low-income countries, are often exposed to indoor air pollution from cooking and heating with biomass fuels. This exposure can lead to respiratory issues, cardiovascular diseases, and adverse pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight and preterm birth. Air pollution, such as fine particulate matter (PM2.5), can increase risk of adverse health events among women with heart disease, diabetes, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) by aggravating these conditions. (To, T. et al., 2015)
- Water Quality
Water is an essential resource for human survival. According to the 2021 World Water Development Report released by UNESCO, the global use of freshwater has increased six-fold in the past 100 years and has been growing by about 1% per year since the 1980s. With the increase of water consumption, water quality is facing severe challenges. Unsafe water has severe implications for human health. According to UNESCO 2021 World Water Development Report, about 829,000 people die each year from diarrhea caused by unsafe drinking water, sanitation, and hand hygiene, including nearly 300,000 children under the age of five, representing 5.3 percent of all deaths in this age group. Women and girls in many parts of the world bear the responsibility of fetching water, which exposes them to pathogens and toxic chemicals like lead and arsenic. Poor water quality can also affect menstrual hygiene, leading to infections and other health problems. (Lin, L. et al., 2022)
- Climate Change
Climate change has widespread implications for women's health. Increased temperatures and extreme weather events can lead to heat-related illnesses, exacerbated chronic conditions, and mental health issues. Climate change has increased the risk to women’s’ health and safety. Especially those who work outdoors or in hot indoor environments, are at increased risk of heat stress and other heat-related disorders, occupational injuries, and reduced productivity at work. A variety of approaches have been developed to measure and assess workers’ occupational heat exposure and the risk of heat-related disorders. Women, particularly pregnant women, are more susceptible to heat stress and related complications. Additionally, climate change can affect food security and nutrition, leading to malnutrition and its associated health problems. (Levy, B. S., & Roelofs, C. 2019)
Social Environmental Factors
- Socioeconomic Status
Socioeconomic status (SES) significantly affects menstrual health by determining access to healthcare, menstrual hygiene products, clean water, and safe living conditions. Women in lower SES brackets often experience higher stress levels, limited healthcare access, and greater exposure to environmental hazards, contributing to poorer menstrual health outcomes. Researchers have observed differences in health status according to socioeconomic status and associations between socioeconomic status, disease prevalence, and mortality. Women with a low socioeconomic status have a poor nutritional status, indicating that socioeconomic status plays a crucial role in an individual’s health. Addressing SES disparities is crucial for improving menstrual health and overall well-being. (Kwak, Y. et al., 2019), (Deardorff, J. et al., 2014)
- Gender Inequality
Gender inequality exacerbates environmental health risks for women, including those related to menstrual health. In many societies, women have less access to education and economic opportunities, limiting their ability to advocate for healthier environments and make informed health decisions. Cultural taboos and stigma surrounding menstruation further hinder women's ability to manage their menstrual health effectively. Gender impacts of climate change have been identified as an issue requiring greater attention by the Commission on the Status of Women. Gender norms, roles and relations are important factors in determining vulnerability and adaptive capacity to the health impacts of climate change. Women’s and men’s vulnerability to the impact of extreme climate events is determined not only by biology but also by differences in their social roles and responsibilities. Promoting gender equality and challenging menstrual taboos are essential for improving menstrual health. (Langer, A et al., 2015), (World Health Organization. 2014)
Conclusion
The environment has a profound impact on women's health, with significant implications for menstrual health. Addressing these environmental health challenges requires a comprehensive approach, including policy interventions, education and advocacy, improved healthcare access, and ongoing research. By understanding and mitigating the environmental factors that uniquely affect menstrual health, we can promote healthier lives and more equitable health outcomes for women worldwide. Ensuring access to clean water, reducing exposure to harmful chemicals, and promoting gender equality are critical steps in this journey. Through concerted efforts and targeted interventions, we can create a healthier and more supportive environment for women's menstrual health and overall well-being.
References
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